sion remains undeniably true and farnfrom trivial.nIslam, equally universal and far morensanguinary, presents a more menacingnface than Christianity. But the authorsnagree with contemporary Arab publicistsnwho contend that Moslems havennonetheless treated Jews better thannChristians have done. The further claimnof such publicists, that Moslems haventreated Jews well, does not withstandnserious examination. The authors observenthat Yemen, the one Moslemncountry never colonized that harborednJews, presents a reasonable “test case.”nYemen fails that test, as it featurednreligiously sanctioned stonings, lawsncompelling Jews to dress as beggars, andnthe forced conversion of Jewish orphans.nThe latter two practices survivednas late as the 1940’s, when Jews solvednthe Yemeni “Jewish problem” by emigratingnto Israel.nJlodern political philosophy resultednin that popular thought-system, ornideology, called “the Enlightenment” bynits publicists. Also universalists. Enlightenmentnpartisans offered what isnfigured as Jewish emancipation in exchangenfor assimilation, the abandonmentnof Judaism. Many of the philosophes,nincluding Voltaire and Mirabeau,nattacked Judaism; a few did not. Thisnsuggests that Enlightenment anti-nSemitism was not entirely accidental.n18inChronicles of CulturenMost modern Jews, themselves secular,nhave believed that the demise ofnreligion would lead to the demise ofnantisemitism. Yet the twentiethncentury, the most secular century ofnhistory, has been the most antisemitic.nNeither has it been especially enlightened.nThe authors concede that “Nonviolence accompanied Enlightenmentnanti-Semitism,” but observed that bothninheritors and critics of the Enlightenment—thenformer mosdy on the left, thenlatter mostly on the right—added anticapitalismnto anticlericalism on the list ofnencouragements of Jew-hatred. “By thentwentieth century, virtually everynpopular ideology in Europe wanted thenJews to disappear.”nThe authors sensibly avoid claimingnthat earlier anti-Semitisms caused thenHolocaust.nOver the preceding decades andncenturies essential elements ofnChristianity, Marxism and socialism,nnationalism, and Enlightenment andnpost-Enlightenment thought hadnruled the existence of Jews to benintolerable. In the final analysis they allnwould have opposed what Hider hadndone, but without them Hider couldnnot have done it.nAfter combining post-Enlightenment,n”scientific” racial anti-Semitism with then”cultural” anti-Semitism of Wagner andnGerman nationalist anti-Semitism, Hitlernnnconcluded that the final solution to then”Jewish problem” is not to convert thenJews but to kill them.nWorld War II destroyed die extremenright as a world power. The Holocaustnshocked citizens of the commercialnrepublics comprising what is considerednthe West—theirs of Christianity andnthe Enlightenment—into abandoningnmuch of their anti-Semitism. It is perhapsna measure of the differences betweennthe religion and ideology of the West andnthose of the East—Islam and Marxism-nLeninism—that partisans of the latternpair have if anything increased their anti-nSemitism. Anti-Zionism, “the first form ofnJew-hatred to deny that it hates Jews,’nadds hypocrisy to the anti-Semites’nragbag of cherished vices. (“In thenMuseum of Religion and Atheism innLeningrad, an exhibit about Zionism andnIsrael designates the following as anti-nSoviet Zionist material: Jewish prayernshawls, teflllin (phylacteries) andnPassover Haggadahs.”) While the authorsncan hardly be accused of fosteringncomplacency about any source of anti-nSemitism, they insist that the principalnthreats to Jews today no longer comenfrom the right but from the left and fromnMoslems allied with the left. They arguenthat efforts to counteract anti-Semitismnshould be focused there.nOf five “possible response[s]” toncontemporary anti-Semitism, the authorsnreject assimilation as an accommodationnto evil. They regard Zionism asnworthwhile but limited because Israelnremains “the most hated country in thenworld.” The central and most controversialnresponse, seeking converts, isnapparently dismissed: “As Judaism doesnnot hold that it is the only way to God…nmissionizing is neither necessary norndesirable.” Fighting anti-Semitic outbreaksnby political and other means theynjudge effective only in regimes of liberty.nThe final and preferred response is ton”affect the values of non-Jews” by disseminatingn”ethical monotheism”: “ThenJewish role is not to bring mankind tonJudaism, but to universal moral law.”n